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Tentative Basis for Determining Final Grade in Biology 419/519
Field tests (six, drop one) 500 points
Keying exam 200 points
Project 100 points
Final recognition exam 200 points
TOTAL POINTS 1000 points
Students registered in Biology 519 will have to turn in a collection of 50 species. Details will be given in class.
Grading Scale
I use the university grading scale but do not curve. Plus and minus grades may be given.
Why is Schedule and Grading Tentative?
I may find it necessary, based on the level of achievement of the class, to alter the relative weights of course segments. I shall try to limit this to no more than approximately 15% of the final grade. Scheduling of field trips must be flexible, due to weather and phenology of plants.
OFFICE HOURS 302F MGB
Tuesday 9-11
Thursday 9-11
My phone is 683 361, fax 683 5283 and email: lmusselm@odu.edu I will establish a class email list for announcements and general communication so please give me your account number. Include it in on the form on page 9 (information form).
What are wetland "delineating" plants?
Our major concern in this course is that group of plants that are used to delineate wetlands under guidelines set by the federal government. Which plants should be included has long been debated. Our definition will probably be more on the "wet" side although most truly aquatic plants will not be included.
Objectives for Biology 419/519
1. My chief objective is to train you in how to learn plants. This is much different than just being able to name plants although naming is the ultimate aim of the technique.
2. To be able to name all major genera and most species of local wetland plants. Special emphasis will be placed on complex and variable groups especially the graminoids.
3. To develop skill and confidence in the determination of unknown plants using keying, herbarium, computer, and other techniques.
4. To become acquainted with some of the adaptations of plants to the wetland habitat.
Achieving the Objectives
In order to achieve the objectives, this course has the following components: lecture, field, laboratory, collection, project, texts, and exams. These are discussed below.
1. Lecture. The emphasis of the lecture will be a survey of major groups of wetland plants. Because not all plants can be found in the field or may not have reproductive or other structures used in their determination, we will look at a lot of slides. In addition, I will go over some of the terminology used in taxonomy as well as principles of nomenclature.
2. Field. This is a field course. While not as formal as a lecture setting, it is the best place to learn plants. I consider it the most important part of the course. For the field trips, bring the following:
1. Handout
2. Textbook
3. Clipboard
4. Clippers or pruning shears or sharp knife
5. Hand lens
6. Plastic garbage bags (not clear)
7. Insect repellant
8. Sturdy shoes
9. Long pants
3. Laboratory. Some plants will require considerable time to identify. For this reason, we will have several laboratory sessions. You will need extra time to key down grasses, sedges, most composites, and peat mosses. I will make arrangements to have the lab open at additional times including evenings and weekends if convenient with the class.
4. Collection. For Biology 519. You will need to check out a plant press. I will demonstrate how to prepare the specimens. Each specimen must be fertile (flowers or fruit or both) and carefully labeled. You may keep your collection or give it to the herbarium for incorporation into our collection.
5. Texts. I discuss these under "texts" below. By the end of the course, you should feel confident keying plants.
6. Exams. There will be a total of six field tests. These are recognition tests in which you give the scientific name of the plant, with proper spelling. For the keying exam, you will be given unknown plants to determine use the Gleason and Cronquist key. The final exam is a recognition exam.
7. Project. Choose a wetland tree and write a paper on its ecology and biology. Topics for the project are due 13 September. Include a brief justification for choosing this project. This is mainly a library project but if you would prefer a field project, please talk with me.
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Attendance Policy
You do not have to attend any class. Of course, you are still responsible for all material covered as well as any announcements or other class information. Field trips can not be made up. If you must miss class for health or other valid reasons, please see me.
How are Plants Determined?
"Determining" a plant means recognizing it and giving it a name. It is synonymous in many ways with identification. Please give some thought as to how you recognize organisms. It may seem esoteric but will ultimately aid you in putting a name on the hundreds of plants you will see if this course. I suggest the following are important.
1. Character states. This would include the physical aspects of the plant-morphology, color, smell, etc. What is the shape of the plant and its parts? A subset of this would be the process of contrast/comparison by which we consciously or unconsciously compare the plant with other plants we know and thus eliminate some names.
2. Habitat and associated species. This is perhaps the most subtle of the techniques we use and becomes of value only when we know the ecology of a particular region.
3. Relationship. Does the plant belong to a family which we already know? By learning fifteen or so families, it is possible to become acquainted with about 70% of the plants in our flora .Likewise, it is helpful to learn the salient features of large, complex genera like Panicum, Carex, Cyperus, etc.
4. Habitat and associated species. This is perhaps the most subtle of the technique s we use and becomes of value only when we know the ecology of a particular region.
Thought question for first test: Think about the organisms or objects you are familiar with such as plants, insects, mammals, trees, or rocks. How did you learn most of these? For you, what is the most effective way to learn them?
Catalog Description
BIOL 419/519. Wetland Delineating Plants. 4 credits. Prerequisite: Biology 220 and ten hours in biology. A field oriented course dealing with the identification of plants used to delineate Wetlands. Lectures cover the structure and ecology of delineating plants. Lab and field stress skills in recognition, environmentally induced variability, ecology, and distribution.
Texts and Selected References
Gleason, H. A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. Second Edition. New York: New York Botanical Garden. This the most up-to- date comprehensive identification guide available for eastern North America. I have selected it as the text with some reservations. The keys can be cumbersome to use. Descriptive language is perhaps too technical. But this is the only volume available for our area which includes all plants. Developing skills with this book will be valuable for you but will require effort.
Holmgren, N. H. 1998. Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist's Manual. Illustrations of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. New York Botanical Garden.
Intended for use with the above volume, this large (937 page) and expensive book includes illustrations of all the plants included in Gleason and Cronquist. The line drawings are of variable quality. This book is a must for anyone seriously interested in the flora of Eastern North America.
Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina Press. When I first went to the University of North Carolina in 1970, this book was new and soon became widely used throughout the Carolinas and all surrounding states as it was the only flora at that time in the region. More than thirty years after its publication, it remains a classic. Many errors, omissions, and additions have been made but these could come about only because the book was so widely used.
Harvill, A. M., T. R. Bradley, C. E. Stevens, T. F. Wieboldt, D.M. E. Ware, D. W. Ogle, G. W. Ramsey, and G. P. Fleming. 1992. Atlas of the Virginia Flora. Virginia Botanical Associates. This is a collection of maps showing the distribution of vascular plants in the state. While no aids to identification are included, you will find the book helpful when you need to know which species are present.
Web Site
I have established a web site that will eventually hold my 7000+ slides. The URL is: web.odu.edu/webroot/instr/sci/lmusselman.nsf/pages/main Familiarize yourself with the site. Plants includes all vascular plants, except Isoetes which has its own entry. Mushrooms and Mosses include fungi, bryophytes and miscellaneous. The list of links is especially useful. Note that the first on the list is the most comprehensive list of plant web sites, the amount of information available is staggering. I have emphasized wetland plant sites. Please bring other good wetland plant sites to my attention. You will also find a sidebar with checklists of all the sites we will visit. These will be updated after each field trip. A category called courses will be added. This syllabus will be included. Please bear in mind that this site is under construction!!
Safety
Most safety concerns are common sense, ie, safe driving. But there are some special concerns in this class which are noted below. This is not an exhaustive list.
1. Vehicle safety. The same regards you should have in your personal vehicle apply here.
2. Insects, snakes. If you are hyperallergic to insect bites, please let me know. Always check yourself after a field trip for ticks and remove them immediately. It is virtually certain that
we shall encounter cottonmouth water moccasins. Always look before you step! Local hospitals of any size carry anti-venom.
3. Other health concerns. Inform me if you are epileptic or diabetic so we will know how to deal with an emergency.
4. Boats. We will be using canoes. It is a federal law that you must have an adult life preserver in the boat for each occupant.
STUDENT INFORMATION FORM--Due 5 September!!
YOUR NAME:
STUDENT NUMBER:
I. Number of credit hours in biology.
II. Expected year and semester of graduation.
III. Chief reason for taking general botany.
IV. Pevious botany/plant courses (if any).
V. Your email address:
Note! You must have an email address to receive notices for this course. Grades will also be distributed via email. Each ODU student is assigned an email account but you must activate it. Or, you can use another email system.
Technical Terms, How Plants are Named, Using Scientific Names
Most students are loath to use scientific names. Yet, in a real and practical way, the easiest way to communicate about plants is to use the designated scientific name. These three essays discuss the use of technical terms, the way scientific names are construed and implemented, and the how the use of these names is often viewed.
The following is a quotation from Mark Twain's "A Tramp Abroad" and illustrates the importance of clear, simple terms.
The man stands up the horses on each side of the thing that projects from the front end of the wagon, throws the gear on top of the horses, and passes the thing that goes forward through a ring, and hauls it aft, and passes the other thing through the other ring, and hauls it aft, and passes the other thing through the other ring and hauls it aft on the other side of the other horse, opposite to the first one, after crossing them and bringing the loose end back, and then buckles the other thing underneath the horse, and takes another thing and wraps it around the thing I spoke of before, and puts another thing over each horse's head, and puts the iron thing in his mouth, and brings the ends of these things after over his back, after buckling another one around under his neck, and hitching another thing on a thing that goes over his shoulders, and then takes the slack of the thing I mentioned a while ago and fetches it aft and makes it fast to the thing that pulls the wagon, and hands the other things up to the driver.
How Plants are Named
What is it? This is surely the first question asked about a new plant. Why? Because the name is a means of communicating information about the object. The name, while an abstract entity, conveys a concrete image of a definite object, in this case a plant. All this seems quite obvious but just imagine what it would be like to communicate without a name. Take a well known weed like yellow nutsedge, for example. How could you communicate with someone about this important weed without using a name? It would take cumbersome phrases like "the perennial grass-like weed with triangular stems and nut-like tubers but not the one with irregular shaped tubers, the one..." The need for names is basic and obvious. What is not always so obvious is the value of having a system of regulated scientific names. Such a need is as basic for weed scientists and others dealing with weeds as is the need and use of common names.
I want to discuss both common names and scientific names. Let's begin with common names as they are the most basic and widely used as well as the most abused and confused of the two types of names.
All of us by our cultural training are botanists. After all, is not this the oldest profession? This type of botany is known as folk botany and all of us are folk botanists simply by being folks! The language of folk botanists is common names. Common names are of value in a given locale but often are meaningless elsewhere. Numerous examples of the confusion that can exist over common names could be given but I will mention only two from my own experience. As a native of southern Wisconsin, I was brought up calling Aquilegia canadensis "honeysuckle" a very logical common name because of the sweet nectaries on the flower that could be eaten. In the mountains of West Virginia a native azalea, Rhododendron nudiflorum, is called "honeysuckle". Don't suck the nectar from these flowers, however, as it is poisonous! In the southern states "honeysuckle" is the widespread introduced woody vine from Japan, Lonicera japonica. Though introduced it has been long associated with southern life as exemplified in the novels of Faulkner where the strong, heavy scent so conspicuous in humid summer evenings oozes from the pages. Thus,"honeysuckle" means different things to different people in different places. Eating honeysuckle in Wisconsin may be pleasant while in West Virginia it may be painful! But in both places Aquilegia is edible and Rhododendron poisonous.
Such examples are not limited to our language but seem to be universal. For example, while conducting weed surveys in Sudan I learned that native farmers used the term "buda" for both witchweed (Striga hermonthica) and a broomrape (Orobanche ramosa). Although both are parasitic weeds they are strikingly differen tin their structure and appearance. As in the illlustration above with nutsedge, the farmers had to resort to long sentences to explain which kind of "buda" was a problem.
This does not mean that common names have no value and that botanists are opposed to common names. Common names often provide interesting and valuable information about the plant. Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) is one example. It is called"dog"wood as a corruption of "dag"wood , in reference to the hard, durable wood of some European species once used to make skewers and daggers. And it is the flowering dogwood because of the very large bracts (ironically not the flowers) which make it so much more attractive than its drab relatives. Birthwort, members of the genus Aristolochia were once used to aid in childbirth. Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) gives us some information on a man named Johnson who, if he were alive, would probably choose not to have his name so defiled.
But johnsongrass conveys nothing to a scientist who does not know the plant and therefore could not even tell to what family the plant belonged as there are many plants that incorporate the term grass in their common name which are not true grasses. Use the name Sorghum halepense (meaning literally, the sorghum from Aleppo, Syria) and he knows that one is dealing with an Eurasian weed that will be difficult to control.
How do botanists fit into this scene? Do they clarify or confuse the situation?
Botanists are faced with two problems involving naming of plants. The first is determining what a species is. This problem is quite complicated and involves an understanding of the species biology of the plant. The second involves the use of names and the process of naming. I want to address the application and use of names as this is an area in which I believe Americans are somewhat lacking.
In fact, American weed scientists are often uneasy about the use of scientific names. This can reach ridiculous proportions when, as is sometimes true, the scientific name is easier to pronounce and spell than the common name and is often shorter to boot. Two examples: Vinca rosea (five syllables) has a sesquipedalian common name of "Madagascar periwinkle"! Which is the easier name? But which name would, in all reality, be most likely used in a conversation among weed scientists? Eurasian water milfoil is a serious problem in some waterways. Its scientific name is Myriophyllum spicatum. Which name is most likely to be used?
I have found that foreign weed scientists are much more likely to refer to a weed in question by a scientific name first than use an appropriate common name. Why do we Americans have so much difficulty with this? I would like to suggest that it is due in part to our training, which lays very little stress on foreign languages, which are often viewed as difficult, cumbersome and generally unnecessary except to satisfy graduate school requirements! This has led to some rather interesting projects like the one envisioned some time ago by a government agency to compile a "standardized" list of common names. By most definitions it is not possible to formalize common names and at best, it is superfluous. Thus such a system would be an unnecessary (and unworkable) duplication of the International Code.
Long ago, botanists realized that a stable international system of name of plants was needed. This has resulted in a formal system called the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature which covers the naming and application of plant names allover the world
A few points about scientific names. They are in Latin .It could be argued, as some of us who had to take Latin in High School, that "Latin is a language, dead as dead can be, first it killed the Romans, now its killing me." It is, in fact, because it is a dead language that it is used since a dead language does not have political overtones. As scientific names are in Latin they are italicized or underlined. Secondly, Latin is a scholarly language in which the people who developed the biological sciences communicated. I encourage (force?) students to speak the names to show that their use is not injurious to health or social standing. Some botanists would disagree but I lay little stress on how the names are pronounced.
Scientific names consist of two parts: the genus name and the specific epithet. In Sorghum halepense the genus is Sorghum and the specific epithet is halepense. There are many species (note that this word is unusual in being both singular and plural) of Sorghum but the combination Sorghum halepense is unique in the Plant Kingdom. Note also that the species name is not halepense but Sorghum halepense. This is because there may be other plants with the specific epithet halepense.
How are plants named?
When a new species is discovered the person naming the plant is required to follow certain rules before his name will be accepted by the botanical community. Remember, the question of whether or not that particular plant should be given the status of a new species is a different problem; what we are concerned with here are the mechanics of naming. First, the name must be published. This is to ensure communication of the information. Second, there must be a written description of the plant in Latin. Third, the author of the name must cite a "type specimen"and the herbarium (a museum of dried, pressed plants) where the type specimen is located. This is an exceptionally valuable practice. It ties the name of of the species to a definite specimen so that if there is any question of application of the name, the inquirer may examine the type specimen. The choice of names is up to the botanist and can be based on the shape, color, his wife's great aunt's maiden name, weather, or anything else. But the name must be unique and not previously used. The name of the author follows the name and is called the authority. Thus, Sorghum halepense (L.) Persoon tells us that this weed was first named by Linnaeus although a later scientist, in this case Persoon, transferred it to another genus (see below). If the name is not published according to the rules, and if it had previously been used, then it is an invalid name and should be rejected for botanical use.
Botanists use the principle of priority, that is, the oldest validly published name is the correct name. It will quickly be seen that some cutoff date is necessary or the names of plants would be traced back to the beginning of time. That date is May 1, 1753, the date of the publication of Species Plantarum by the great Swedish biologist, Carolus Linnaeus. The goal of botanical nomenclature is to ensure that one and only one name be used for a species. Those botanists who specialize in nomenclature render a great, if largely unappreciated, service to other plant scientists.
Those botanists who hastily publish a new name without the research to determine if a new name is necessary do a disservice to plant science. While this does happen, it does not take away the value of a regulated system of nomenclature. Again, it is important to remember that the rules of nomenclature govern only the mechanics of naming the plant. Even if an unnecessary name is published, it is governed by the rules. Abuse of the system by a minority does not detract from the immense benefit of the system of nomenclature to the world community of plant scientists.
So why do botanists not practice what they preach? Why do scientific names change?
The story was related to me of a prominent weed scientist who showed the class a weed and give them the common name and scientific name and said "remember the common name because the scientific name is sure to change." Plant taxonomy (the science that deals with the naming of plants and their relationships) is a dynamic science just as plants are dynamic organisms. This is why names change. Research may show that a plant has been placed in the wrong genus. Again, take johnsongrass. Linnaeus first described this as a species of Holcus so it was first known as Holcus halepensis in 1753 (the slight difference in the spelling of the specific epithet is due to the different endings required in Latin). Later, Persoon realized that the true affinities of johnsongrass were with the genus Sorghum rather than with the velvet grasses in the genus Holcus. This change of genus required a change in the authority which now became (L.) Persoon. This tidy system is really a marvel of efficiency as a botanist can take a quick look at the authority and tell that the type specimen was one of Linnaeus' specimens and thus named by him and also that Persoon changed the genus at a later time! Another example is that of witchweed, (Striga asiatica) which was first described as a species of the related genus Buchnera. As plants became better known, it was found that the natural alliance of witchweed was with Striga, not Buchnera.
The question could be asked "does it really make any difference?" If we are interested in clear, effective communication then the use of the correct name is vital. The correct name reflects, as much as is possible, the biological realities of the plant. Weed scientists need to make an effort to see that the basics of botanical nomenclature are included in weed science courses to enable students to feel at ease with the system and to understand its value. This should not prove difficult as the way in which the chemical names of herbicides are determined is probably included. These complicated names and formulae appear more formidable, at least to me, than Latin names. Surely there is a workable system for naming these compounds just as there is for naming plants. Students need not memorize either the names of the compounds or the names of the plants. The important thing is to know how the names are formulated and used. Botanists just started sooner. After all, the system works elegantly-even after two centuries no more efficient means of naming plants or retrieving information about them has been devised even with powerful information retrieval systems never before available to man.
Accurate communication is what it is all about.
[How Plants are Named and Why Names Change, L J Musselman, 1985, Weeds Today 16(1):1-3.]
Using Scientific Names
The following is a quote from Flora of the Dallas Fort Worth Area Flora of the Dallas Fort Worth Area by Lloyd H. Shinners and discusses the use of Latin names.
There is no magic which will make it child's play to find out the names of so huge a quantity of variable plants. No real familiarity with them can be acquired without using technical terms. No worthwhile list of them is possible without using scientific names. If you wish something painless and effortless, the pursuit of botany is not for you. Nature gives away few secrets to the lazy, and none to to the incompetent.
Do not assume you are incompetent because you find technical terms and names strange, and your first attempts at identifying difficult or a failure. You are probably only a victim of modern American education, along with inexperience.
When in 1829 Mrs. Almira Hart Lincoln (later Mrs. Phelps) published her Familiar Lectures on Botany, she used Latin names, and more technical terms than appear in this book, though she wrote for students at what would now be high school or at most junior-college level. Yet her book became a best-seller among the general public, and remained so for half a century, at a time when few completed high school, and college students were a rarity. Her "familiar" introduction to botany was hardly less difficult than the technical manuals of Amos Eaton, Asa Gray, and Alphonso Wood, also best-sellers in their day, to people not prepared by formal training for scientific work. They would not have understood the degeneration which has led to the cynical modern saying : "an education is something that enables you to get along without intelligence."
There is not a part of botany about which there are so many foolish misconceptions or such prevalent ignorance as Latin names. All our knowledge about plants would be useless if we did not have some means of organizing it, of indexing it to make it accessible. We have to have some- thing usable in all countries, concise, and possible of unlimited expansion. Latin names are the answer. They are a very basic tool, and a simple necessity.
One of the most tiresome and irritating remarks I have to listen to, over and over, runs "Oh, don't give me those terrible Latin names; give me something I can say and under stand." People who mouth such jawbreakers as chrysanthemum or asparagus without batting an eye are simply being childish when they say they cannot manage Latin names. That is what those two are, without a single letter changed. So are gladiolus, anemone, magnolia, aster, rhododendron, azalea, crocus, iris, nandina, gardenia-to give just a few. Latin names are often longer than common ones, but sometimes the reverse is true. For example, a sesquipedalian misnomer like "Madagascar periwinkle" has no superiority that I can see over plain Vinca rosea (or even Lochnera rosea, if one prefers to split up the genus).
Selected Bibliography
This may be the last time I provide a list of references because of the growing availability of resources on the internet. Be certain to check the ODU plant site for the links to a large list of references sites.
Aulbach-Smith, C. A. and S. J de Kozlowski. 1990. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of South Carolina. Columbia: South Carolina Aquatic Plant Management Council.(An attractive, full color guide)
Beal, E.O. 1977. A Manual of Marsh and Aquatic Vascular Plants of North Carolina with Habitat Data. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh. Technical Bulletin No.247. (For our area, this is unparalleled volume. It has keys ,illustrations and data on water chemistry.)
Beal, E. O. and J. W. Thieret. 1986. Aquatic Plants of Kentucky. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. Scientific and Technical Series Number 5. (While some plants, especially those of marine habitats may not be in this volume, it is still valuable for the Tidewater area because of the helpful keys and illustrations.)
Chase, A. 1964. First Book of Grasses. Third edition. Smithsonian Institution Press. (This excellent little book provides a clear explanation of grass structure.)
Cook, C. D. K. 1990. Aquatic Plant Book. The Hague: Academic.(This is one of the few exhaustive treatmentsof all aquatic genera. It includes 396 genera in 78 families.There is an illustration for each genus as well as helpful bibliographic references.)
0 Correll, D. S. and H. P. Correll. 1972. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southwestern United States. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. [This large volume (l,777 pages) contains illustrations and descriptions of many of our local species. Information on wildlife use is also included. Reprinted by Stanford University Press.]
Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 1993. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 1. Introduction. Volume 2. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. New York: Oxford University Press. (This massive project will produce the definitive flora of North America. It is available on line. Check the "links" section of the plant photo site).
Eleuterius, L. N. 1990. Tidal Marsh Plants. Pelican Publishing Company, Gretna Louisiana. (An illustrated guide to the most common tidal marsh plants.)
Fernald, M. L. 1950. Grays Manual of Botany, eighth edition. American Book Company. (This monumental work does not deal with wetland plants as such, but species in our flora are included in detail.)
Gleason, H. A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. Sec-ond Edition. Bronx: New York Botanical Garden. (This is the most modern comprehensive flora of the Northeastern United States. While not as detailed in some aspects as Fernald, it has the advantage of updated nomenclature and a more modern species concept.)
Godfrey, R. K. and J. W. Wooten. 1979. Aquatic Plants of South-eastern United States. Monocotyledons. 712 pages. and Godfrey, R. K. and J. W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic Plants of Southeastern United States. Dicotyledons. 933 pages. Athens: University of Georgia Press. (These are probably the best volumes for identifying aquatic plants in our region.)
Harvill, A. M., Jr., T. R. Bradley, C. E. Stevens, T. F. Wieboldt, D. M. E. Ware, D. W. Ogle, G. W. Ramsey, and G. P. Fleming. 1992. Atlas of the Virginia Flora. III. Virginia Botanical Associates. 144 pages. This is the only volume available which includes all of the plants of Virginia. It is a collection of distribution maps with some essays included.T here are no keys or illustrations. Copies are $11 for spiral bound, $10 for regular paper bound. Order from: A. M. Harvill, Route 1, Box 63, Burkeville, Virginia 23922
Mason, H. L. 1957. A Flora of the Marshes of California. University of California Press, Berkeley. (This is a volume valuable for its exceptionally fine illustrations.)
Marshall, H. G. and M. D. Norman, editors. 1991. Proceedings of the Back Bay Ecological Symposium. Norfolk: Old Dominion University. (There is a section devoted to the flora of the region.)
Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1968.Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina Press. (Particularly useful in the Tidewater area because of the distribution maps and illustrations. This volume is essential for anyone who needs a reference to all the plants of the Tidewater area.
Reed, P. B., Jr. 1988. National List of Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands: Northeast (Region 1). Washington: U S Department of the Interior.
Reed, P. B., Jr. 1988. National List of Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands: National Summary. Washington: U S Department of the Interior. (This volume and that above are the standardfor use in determining what is and what isn't a wetland plant. For this reason they have forensic value. Many of the entries need clarification and correction.)
Silberhorn, G. E. 1976. Tidal Wetland Plants of Virginia. Educational Series 19 of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. (This booklet often lumps groups of plants, eg, wild rices. Helpful notes on use by wildlife are included.)
Herbarium Procedures
INTRODUCTION
An herbarium may be defined as a museum of dried plants usually arranged in an systematic manner. Such a collection is of great value for a variety of studies because one is dealing with
the actual plant rather than a picture or some other reproduction. It has become routine to extract DNA from herbarium specimens, a technique which greatly enhances the value of herbarium collections.
SPECIMEN COLLECTION
Proper specimen preparation begins with the careful collection of plant material. Keep a notebook with detailed data. Give each specimen a number. With certain exceptions, obtain plants which are fertile i.e., in flower or fruit. Many herbaria will not include sterile material in their collections. Always use discretion in collecting plants which may be rare or endangered. If in doubt as to this, do not collect. Do not collect diseased or otherwise abnormal plants. If the plant is woody (tree, shrub, woody vine) collect a terminal portion approximately 12 inches long. Bark samples may also be useful. If you are collecting small herbaceous plants, obtain enough to fill a sheet. With large perennial herbs (such as species of Helianthus-sunflowers), it is necessary to use several sheets
for one plant. Always collect additional flowers and fruits for possible use in identification and/or research. Aquatic plants require special care. See comments under pressing, below.
PRESSING AND DRYING
Plants are pressed flat in order to more conveniently store them as well as to preserve as much of the character of the plant as possible. As a general rule it is best to press specimens as soon after collection as possible, ideally in the field. Use a newspaper sheet which has been torn along the long crease (i.e. approx. 12 x 18 inches). Use a SINGLE layer of newspaper, if you don't the specimen will take longer to dry and may even begin to mold in the press. Remove dirt from the specimen, in some cases the roots or even the entire plant must be washed. Arrange the plant in the newspaper in a manner which best resembles its aspect when growing. Turn over at least one of the leaves to reveal the characteristics of the leaf undersurface. Place the newspaper (without disturbing the arrangement of the specimen) between two blotters (if available). Place each sandwich of blotter-newspaper-blotter between corrugates. When the press is full, secure the straps tightly. DRY COMPLETELY.
AQUATICS
For submergent aquatics with finely dissected leaves, eg, Cabomba, Ceratophyllum, Ranunculus, Limnophila, rinse the plant of attached algae and mud. Place the specimen in clean water and
float the plant out on to a regular sheet of herbarium mounting paper. Place wax paper over the specimen and place in a plant press to dry. Upon drying, bridge the stem and other thick places with glue and attach the label.
For fleshy emergents like Peltandra, Pontederia, Typha, etc you may need to split the stem before pressing. The same procedure may be necessary for floating leaf plants like Nymphaea, Nuphar, Brasenia, and Nelumbo.
For small, free floating plants like members of the Lemnaceae, simply float the plants in water and lift them out on to an index card. The index card is then mounted on to an herbarium sheet.
LABELING
Use only 100% rag bond paper for labels. Labels are available in computer feed sheets or can be made by simply typing on any 100% rag bond, acid free paper. Each label should contain the
name of the plant, including author, the exact location, associated species, and any other information which could not be gleaned from the dried specimen alone. Follow the general format
below. A sample label follows:
Herbarium
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, Virginia 23529-0266
PLANTS OF THE SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
Suweida Governate
Isoetes sp. (Perhaps Isoetes olympica A. Braun)
Estimated one hundred plants at margin of dried depression, an intermittent wetland remaining after channelization of stream. Associated species include: Ranunculus sp., Myosurus sp., Veronica sp., Phalaris sp., Juncus sp., Carex sp., and innumerable weedy Asteraceae in clayey mud, still moist (unlike May 1999 when entire area was dry). Most years the stream also dries by June. Quillworts found along few meters only, despite search of entire area of enclosed field, perhaps 0.5 ha. Evidence of rough ploughing and other disturbance, possibly grazing by horses. In short, a very disturbed area. Despite this, some sporelings observed around base of plants. Larger plants with developing sporangia. Black scales obvious at base of plant; these easily removed by washing.
On opposite side of road, where water is ponded, an estimated 25 quillwort plants were growing submersed among Ranunculus sp. and Juncus sp. These plants have much longer leaves than those growing as emergents and lack developing sporangia.
Unclear whether or not this is one of the original Mouterde locations (Mouterde, 1953 Flore de Djebel Druze). Only known collection Mouterde, xxxx 1953 (BM, University of Jordan).
7.6 km from main gate of agricultural research sation above city of Suweida to third road on right, then 1.2 km. Area is on left. Entire area being cleared and vegetation being destroyed for apple culture. Vicinity of village of Saleh. Ancient volcanic range, entirely of basalt known as Jebel Hauran, Jebel Druze and, most recently, Jebel Arab. Elevation ca. 1300m.
Lytton John Musselman and Majd Jamal 2007 6 May 2000
This example contains more information than most because of the rarity of the plant and its almost certain extirpation. Because of this, the label should include as much information as possible for the person studying the specimen. GPS units are useful to have in the field to give precise locations.
Include the characteristic and/or dominant plants so that the plant community is defined. It is especially important to record information that the person examining the specimen would not be
aware of, ie, fragrance, pollinators. Always include some information of the soil type.
MOUNTING SPECIMENS
The purpose in mounting specimens is to be able to store and handle them without damage. It is not essential to mount specimens, in fact, some large herbaria routinely file unmounted specimens. But mounted specimens are much less brittle and subject to damage than unmounted.There are a variety of techniques that can be used to mount plants, the following is one of the simplest and uses readily available material.
1. Decide which kind of paper or mounting board you wish to use. A good supplier of herbarium materials is: Herbarium Supply Company, 955 West Catching Inlet, Coos Bay, Oregon 97420; phone (503) 269-2350. A standard weight paper is the "New York" type but for large, bulky specimens or specimens which will receive a lot of use, I recommend a heavier paper.
2. If there is a likelihood that the specimens will be sent to other botanists for study or determinations, be certain to have the name and address of your institution. Consult the most recent issue of "Index Herbariorum" (a compilation of all the world's herbaria) for a suitable acronym and send your institution's data to the editors of that volume.
3. After removing any soil from the plant, arrange the plant on the paper attempting to make it look as much like it did when alive as possible. Also be certain to have at least one leaf turned over so that the features of the undersurface are available for study after mounting. Place extra parts of the
specimen in a packet. Decide where you will put the label. The standard location is in the lower right hand corner but take care not to cover any part of the plant.
4. Evenly coat a glass plate with glue. Use something like "Elmer's" as it is water soluble, dries clear, and is not softened by pesticides. Place the specimen on the glue taking care to ensure that all parts of the plant are in contact with the glue. Place the specimen on the sheet.
5 Cover the newly mounted specimen with a sheet of waxed paper and place weights (fishing sinkers or large bolts work fine) in appropriate places. Allow to dry over night.
6. When the specimen is dry, you can "bridge" the thicker parts of the plant with a strip of glue. Specimens can be stacked using one-inch square wooden blocks and allowed to dry overnight.
The specimens are now ready to be filed.
PEST CONTROL
It is essential to keep insects from damaging the specimens. his is best accomplished by using moth crystals in the cabinets. If the cabinets are used often, more crystals will be needed. Some institutions freeze incoming plant material to sterilize it.
THE OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY HERBARIUM
The Old Dominion University Herbarium (located in room 354) consists of about 20,000 specimens and represents a considerable investment of both time and expense as well as a
valuable teaching and research resource. The herbarium is not for general student use; however, you will be expected to become very familiar with it. Arrangements will be made for you
to use it at times other than regular laboratory periods. Be familiar with how an herbarium is used and cared for. Herbarium specimens are fragile and irreplaceable, therefore please adhere to these few simple regulations.
1. Handling of specimens: Each sheet is an irreplaceable museum specimen and must be handled accordingly. Do not bend the sheets nor turn them so that the specimen is facing the table. Never remove specimens from room 354 (except for Teaching Collection material). Be certain cabinet doors are tightly closed to prevent the entry of insects which can destroy the entire collection in a short time.
2. Main Collection: This is arranged as follows: mosses, ferns and fern allies, gymnosperms, monocots, dicots. Within each group the families, genera, and species are alphabetical. Family names follow our only regional flora, "Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas". The exception is the fern collection; these are filed by genus because of conflicting opinion as to the delineation of many fern families.
3. Main Collection Folders and Labels: There are three folder colors; plants from Virginia and North Carolina are in tan (or khaki) folders, those from other states are in yellow folders, and those from other countries are in green folders. Folder labels must be from label paper stock, com-
puter generated, and glued with the same quality glue used for the specimens. Do not use gummed labels, they begin to peel off after use.
4. Teaching Collection. This is a specially selected and specially mounted collection for student use. These can be removed from the herbarium and used for classes, demonstrations, etc.
5. Voucher Specimens: Voucher specimens deposited in the herbarium and referred to in publications should include the collector's name and collection number. The International
Association of Plant Taxonomists has assigned our herbarium the code letters ODU. These letters should be cited as part of the reference voucher specimen.
6. Labeling and Mounting: Research specimens which need to be incorporated into the collection will be mounted and filed. Any specimens to be incorporated should have l00% rag bond labels. Labels must be typed or in indelible black ink. Ball point is not acceptable. Labels of rag bond,
acid free paper for word processors are available and should be used whenever possible.
TEACHING COLLECTION
We have an extensive collection of aquatic and wetland plants for your study use. They are located in MGB 354 and in MGB 352. Feel free to use them at any time.
Major Plant Families
This is a list of some large families which have many species in our area. The short descriptions are not intended to be comprehensive and there will be many exceptions but if you can learn these families your will become familiar with a major portion of our flora.
MONOCOTS
I. Leaves narrow, grass-like. Leaf veins parallel; flowers small and inconspicuous. Graminoids
Grass family (Poaceae or Gramineae). Flowers greatly reduced, without conspicuous perianth; nodes swollen; leaves with open sheaths; fruits one seeded. Includes cord grasses (Spartina), panic grasses (Panicum), and sea oats (Uniola).
Sedge family (Cyperaceae). Flowers greatly reduced, green; nodes not swollen; leaves often appearing creased, with closed sheaths. Includes the largest genus in our flora sedges (Carex), bulrushes (Scirpus), and beakrushes (Rhynchospora).
Rush family (Juncaceae). Flowers three merous, green; fruit many seeded; leaves often reduced. Only two genera in our flora. Rushes (Juncus) and wood rushes (Luzula).
II. Leaves usually not grass-like; leaf veins parallel; flower parts in 3's Leaf veins parallel; flower parts in 3's
Lily family (Liliaceae). Flowers 3-merous, hypogynous, perianth usually showy. Includes greenbrier (Smilax), trillium (Trillium), and Solomon's seal (Polygonatum). NOTE: the circumscription of the lily family and its relatives has changed dramatically in the past few years.
Orchid family (Orchidaceae). Leaves (in ours) often basal. Flowers (in ours) often inconspicuous, epigynous, twisted on the flower stalk. Includes rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera), cranefly orchid (Tipularia), and lady's slipper (Cypripedium).
DICOTS
Leaf veins forked or reticulate; flower parts in 4's or 5's, or numerous.
Ia. Catkin Bearing Trees
Oak family (Fagaceae). Leaves alternate, simple, stipulate. Flowers unisexual; male flowers borne in catkins, female flowers in few flowered clusters. Three genera: beech (Fagus), chinquapin and chestnut (Castanea), and oaks (Quercus).
Ib. Catkin not Present; Ovary Superior
IIa. Petals Separate or United at Base
Mustard family (Brassicaceae or Cruciferae). Leaves alternate. Sepals 4, petals 4, stamens 6, of two different lengths. Includes mustard (Brassica), bittercress (Cardamine), and water cress (Nasturtium).
Chickweed family (Caryophyllaceae). Leaves opposite, simple. Flowers 5-merous (petals may be absent). Includes chickweed (Stellaria), mouse ear chickweed (Cerastium).
Rose family (Rosaceae). Leaves alternate, usually with stipules. Flowers radially symmetrical, 5-merous. Many genera including strawberry (Fragaria), Rose (Rosa), raspberry (Rubus).
Bean family (Fabaceae or Leguminoseae). Leaves alternate and usually pinnately compound. Flowers 5-merous, bilaterally symmetrical. Many genera including white clover (Trifolium), wisteria (Wisteria), and redbud (Cercis).
IIb. Petals United; Ovary Superior
Heath family (Ericaceae). Leaves alternate, simple. Flowers 5-merous, hypogynous (except blueberries and huckleberries which are epigynous). Several genera of shrubs including rhododendrons and azaleas (Rhododendron), blueberries (Vaccinium), and huckleberry (Gaylussacia).
Mint family (Lamiaceae). Leaves opposite, stem square; fruit a schizocarp of 4 nutlets. Flowers usually two lipped, stigma unequally forked at summit. Includes henbit (Lamium), mint (Mentha), and salvia (Salvia).
Figwort family (Scrophulariaceae). Leaves usually opposite, fruit a capsule. Corolla with 5 lobes. Includes speedwell (Veronica), mullein (Verbascum), and foxglove (Digitalis).
Potato family (Solanaceae). Leaves alternate. Flowers 5-merous, radially symmetrical, anthers opening by pores (in some genera).Includes potato (Solanum), jimsonweed (Datura), and ground cherry (Physalis).
IIc. Ovary Superior; Petals not United into a Tube
Parsley family (Apiaceae). Leaves usually compound with sheathing bases. Flowers small, 5-merous, inflorescence an umbel. Includes Queen Anne's lace (Daucus), water hemlock (Cicuta), and hydrocotyle (Hydrocotyle).
IId. Petals United into a Tube
Madder family (Rubiaceae). Leaves opposite, stipules present. Flowers 4-merous. Includes buttonbush (Cephalanthus), cleavers (Galium), partridge berry (Mitchella).
Aster family (Asteraceae). Leaves simple. Flowers very small, in compact heads; corolla 5-lobed. A large family with many diverse genera including dandelion (Taraxacum), groundsel (Baccharis), aster (Aster), and goldenrod (Solidago).
CHECKLISTS
These are lists of the scientific names of the plants we will see. The same lists will be posted on the web site and you can print a copy. It is most helpful to have the lists when in the field. This will ensure that you get the name correct as well as the spelling. Remember, any checklist is a "work in progress" because having such a list makes finding new plants easier. Be sure that any new plants are added to the list. Checklists that are on the web site are not included here.
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